The main ore minerals in bauxite are gibbsite, bohmeite, and diaspore. Arsenic - Recovered from other metal processing streams primarily from the sulfosalts such as tennantite etc. Arsenopyrite is the most common arsenic mineral. The relatively low demand for arsenic as compared to the amount of arsenic mined that is associated with other metals means it can be supplied from the waste streams of other ore processing.
Beryllium - The major ore mineral for beryllium in the U. Bismuth - Primarily a byproduct of lead processing. Also found in a number of minerals such as bismuthinite and as a constituent in various sulfosalts. Cadmium - Unlike many other commodities cadmium is produced as a byproduct of zinc sphalerite mining.
Cesium - The major ore mineral is pollucite, a pegmatite mineral. Production and use of this metal is extremely small a few thousand kilograms per year.
Chlorine - Produced from the mineral halite rock salt. Chromium - The chief source is the mineral chromite which is found in large layered intrusives and serpentine bodies. Cobalt - The primary minerals for cobalt is cobaltite. Some cobalt is also produced from weathered tropical orebodies. Copper - Most copper ore bodies are mined from minerals created by weathering of the primary copper ore mineral chalcopyrite.
Minerals in the enriched zone include chalcocite, bornite, djurleite. Minerals in the oxidized zones include malachite, azurite, chyrsocolla, cuprite, tenorite, native copper and brochantite.
Gallium - A byproduct of zinc and alumina processing. Some primary "ore" may contain up to ppm. Germanium - A byproduct of zinc ore processing.
Also a deposit in China is associated with coal. Gold - The primary mineral of gold is the native metal and electrum a gold-silver alloy. Some tellurides are also important ore minerals such as calaverite, sylvanite, and petzite.
Hafnium - Primary ore mineral is zircon. Indium - Primarily is a byproduct of zinc processing. Iodine - Initial production was from seaweed.
Iodine is extracted from natural gas field brines up to ppm iodine in the brines. Iron - Two major minerals in the production of iron are it's oxides, hematite and magnetite.
These are found in preCambrian iron formations. Historically there was also production from goethite and siderite. The iron sulfides pyrite and pyrrhotite were not used as iron sources due to the difficulty of removing sulfur from the metals and the brittleness this sulfur caused in the metal. If such side-effects arise, lower doses between meals should be attempted or iron should be provided with meals, although food reduces absorption of medicinal iron by about two-thirds.
Fortification of foods with iron is more difficult than fortification with nutrients, such as zinc in flour, iodine in salt, and vitamin A in cooking oil. It is closer to the physiological environment and might be the safest intervention in malarious areas. Iron compounds recommended for food fortification by the[ 7 ] include ferrous sulfate, ferrous fumarate, ferric pyrophosphate, and electrolytic iron powder. Wheat flour is the most common iron fortified food and it is usually fortified with elemental iron powders which are not recommended by WHO.
These programs used recommended iron compounds at the recommended levels. The other countries used non recommended compounds or lower levels of iron relative to flour intake. Commercial infant foods, such as formulas and cereals, are also commonly fortified with iron. However, most of this iron is removed during the milling process.
Iron absorption from cereals and legumes, many of which have high native iron content, is generally low because of their high contents of phytate and sometimes polyphenols. Iron levels in common beans and millet have been successfully increased by plant breeding but other staple is more difficult or not possible rice due to insufficient natural genetic variation. Lucca et al. They introduced a ferritin gene from Phaseolus vulgaris into rice grains, increasing their iron content up to twofold.
To increase iron bioavailability, they introduced a thermotolerant phytase from Aspergillus fumigatus into the rice endosperm. They indicated that this rice, with higher iron content and rich in phytase has a great potential to substantially improve iron nutrition in those populations where iron deficiency is so widely spread.
The importance of various minerals as zinc[ ] and iron needs more attention at individual and public health levels. Source of Support: Nil. Conflict of Interest: None declared. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U.
J Res Med Sci. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Address for correspondence: Prof. E-mail: ri. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract It is well-known that deficiency or over exposure to various elements has noticeable effects on human health.
Keywords: Anemia, human iron requirement, iron bioavailability, iron deficiency, iron metabolism. Open in a separate window. Figure 1. Regulation of iron homeostasis Since iron is required for a number of diverse cellular functions, a constant balance between iron uptake, transport, storage, and utilization is required to maintain iron homeostasis. Figure 2.
Storage Ferritin concentration together with that of hemosiderin reflects the body iron stores. Excretion Apart from iron losses due to menstruation, other bleeding or pregnancy, iron is highly conserved and not readily lost from the body.
Factors inhibiting iron absorption In plant-based diets, phytate myo-inositol hexakisphosphate is the main inhibitor of iron absorption. Competition with iron Competition studies suggest that several other heavy metals may share the iron intestinal absorption pathway. Table 2 Iron requirements of Causes of iron deficiency Iron deficiency results from depletion of iron stores and occurs when iron absorption cannot keep pace over an extended period with the metabolic demands for iron to sustain growth and to replenish iron loss, which is primarily related to blood loss.
Some of these causes include the following: Iron deficiency anemia The most significant and common cause of anemia is iron deficiency. Anemia of chronic disease Any long-term medical condition can lead to anemia.
Anemia from active bleeding Loss of blood through heavy menstrual bleeding or wounds can cause anemia. Anemia related to kidney disease The kidneys releases a hormone called the erythropoietin that helps the bone marrow make RBCs. Anemia related to pregnancy A gain in plasma volume during pregnancy dilutes the RBCs and may be reflected as anemia. Anemia related to poor nutrition Vitamins and minerals are required to make RBCs. Obesity and anemia Obesity is characterized by chronic, low-grade, systemic inflammation, elevated hepcidin, which, in turn has been associated with anemia of chronic disease.
Alcoholism Alcohol has numerous adverse effects on the various types of blood cells and their functions. Sickle cell anemia Sickle cell anemia is one of the most common inherited diseases.
Thalassemia This is another group of hemoglobin-related causes of anemia, which involves the absence of or errors in genes responsible for production of hemoglobin. Aplastic anemia Aplastic anemia is a disease in which the bone marrow is destructed and the production of blood cells is diminished. Hemolytic anemia Hemolytic anemia is a type of anemia in which the RBCs rupture, known as hemolysis, and are destroyed faster than the bone marrow can replace them.
Food diversification Dietary modifications for reducing Indian Dental Association involve increased intake of iron rich foods, especially flesh foods, increased consumption of fruits and vegetables rich in ascorbic acid to enhance nonheme iron absorption, and reduced intake of tea and coffee, which inhibit nonheme iron absorption.
Supplementation For oral iron supplementation, ferrous iron salts ferrous sulfate and ferrous gluconate are preferred because of their low cost and high bioavailability.
Fortification Fortification of foods with iron is more difficult than fortification with nutrients, such as zinc in flour, iodine in salt, and vitamin A in cooking oil. Handbook of Nutritionally Essential Mineral Elements. Wood RJ, Ronnenberg A. Modern Nutrition in Health And Disease. McDowell LR.
Amsterdam: Elsevier Science; Minerals in Animal And Human Nutrition; p. Guggenheim KY. Chlorosis: The rise and disappearance of a nutritional disease. J Nutr. Yip R, Dallman PR. Present knowledge in nutrition. The mineral nutrition of livestock; p. Guidelines on food fortification with micronutrients; p.
An analysis of anemia and child mortality. Bioavailability of heme iron in biscuit filling using piglets as an animal model for humans. Int J Biol Sci. Chemistry and biology of eukaryotic iron metabolism. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. The roles of iron in health and disease. Mol Aspects Med. Guerinot ML. Microbial iron transport. Annu Rev Microbiol. Askwith C, Kaplan J. Iron and copper transport in yeast and its relevance to human disease.
Trends Biochem Sci. Hurrell RF. Bioavailability of iron. Eur J Clin Nutr. Institute of Medicine. Muir A, Hopfer U. Regional specificity of iron uptake by small intestinal brush-boarder membranes from normal and iron deficient mice. Am J Physiol. Iron imports. Intestinal iron absorption and its regulation. Iron transport and homeostasis mechanisms: Their role in health and disease. Indian J Med Res. Wang J, Pantopoulos K. Regulation of cellular iron metabolism.
Biochem J. Iron feeding induces ferroportin 1 and hephaestin migration and interaction in rat duodenal epithelium. Absorption of iron from ferritin is independent of heme iron and ferrous salts in women and rat intestinal segments. Ferritin-iron is released during boiling and in vitro gastric digestion. Hurrell R, Egli I. Iron bioavailability and dietary reference values. Am J Clin Nutr.
Finberg KE. Unraveling mechanisms regulating systematic iron homeostasis. Am Soc Hematol. Nemeth E, Ganz T. Regulation of iron metabolism by hepcidin.
Annu Rev Nutr. Hepcidin regulates cellular iron efflux by binding to ferroportin and inducing its internalization. Hepcidin regulation: Ironing out the detail. J Clin Invest.
Braun V, Killmann H. Bacterial solutions to the iron-supply problem. Hunt JR. How important is dietary iron bioavailability? Body iron excretion by healthy men and women. Fairbanks VF. Iron in medicine and nutrition. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease. Rome: FAO; Food based approaches to meeting vitamin and mineral needs; pp. Estimation of available dietary iron.
A concise review: Iron absorption — the mucin-mobilferrin-integrin pathway. A competitive pathway for metal absorption. Am J Hematol. Ascorbic acid chelates in iron absorption: A role for hydrochloric acid and bile. Iron absorption in man: Ascorbic acid and dose-dependent inhibition by phytate.
Ascorbic acid prevents the dose-dependent inhibitory effects of polyphenols and phytates on nonheme-iron absorption. Absorption of fortification iron from milk formulas in infants. The effects of fruit juices and fruits on the absorption of iron from a rice meal. Br J Nutr. Interaction of vitamin C and iron. Ann N Y Acad Sci. Enhancers of iron absorption: Ascorbic acid and other organic acids. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. The effect of dietary proteins on iron bioavailability in man.
Adv Exp Med Biol. Bjorn-Rasmussen E, Hallberg L. Effect of animal proteins on the absorption of food iron in man. Nutr Metab. Consumption in a varied diet marginally influences nonheme iron absorption in normal individuals. Pork meat increases iron absorption from a 5-day fully controlled diet when compared to a vegetarian diet with similar vitamin C and phytic acid content.
Soy protein, phytate, and iron-absorption in humans. Phytic acid degradation as a means of improving iron absorption. Inhibition of non-haem iron absorption in man by polyphenolic-containing beverages.
Hallberg L, Rossander L. Effect of different drinks on the absorption of non-heme iron from composite meals. Foods rich in vitamin C such as citrus, strawberries, tomatoes, and potatoes also increase iron absorption. Cooking foods in a cast-iron skillet can also help to increase the amount of iron provided.
Some foods reduce iron absorption. For example, commercial black or pekoe teas contain substances that bind to dietary iron so it cannot be used by the body. The human body stores some iron to replace any that is lost. However, a low iron level over a long period of time can lead to iron deficiency anemia. Symptoms include lack of energy, shortness of breath, headache, irritability, dizziness , or weight loss.
Physical signs of lack of iron are a pale tongue and spoon-shaped nails. Babies and young children are at risk for a low iron level if they do not get the right foods. Babies moving to solid foods should eat iron-rich foods.
Infants are born with enough iron to last about six months. An infant's extra iron needs are met by breast milk.
Infants who are not breastfed should be given an iron supplement or iron-fortified infant formula. Children between age 1 and 4 grow fast. This uses up iron in the body.
Children of this age should be given iron-fortified foods or an iron supplement. Milk is a very poor source of iron.
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